Abstract: Abstract The regulatory assessment of the complex endpoints, carcinogenicity and reproductive and developmental toxicity, still heavily relies on animal testing. This chapter reviews the alternative approaches that have been developed in these areas in the last decades to waive testing and reduce the number of animals used and summarises the lessons learned. The alternative approaches range from the individual test methods, such as the cell transformation assay for carcinogenicity and the embryotoxicity tests for reproductive toxicity, to reduc...
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Topics: 
Risk analysis (engineering)